Nicolai Berdyaev (1874-1948), Russian philosopher born in Kiev; initially a Marxist and revolutionary agitator, became a leading opponent of the anti-religious views of the Russian intelligentsia; appointed to the chair in philosophy at Moscow University in 1920; moved to Berlin in 1922 and then Paris following his expulsion from Russia; his many works included The meaning of history (1923), translated into English in 1936, which outlined a conception of Christian Providence as the ruling force in historical change and accordingly of history as the spiritual reality of human life, not something external to it. See Volume 59.

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